Bubalus mindorensis
Tamaraw
Taxonomy
- Bubalus mindorensis [Heude, 1888].
-
Citation: Mem. Hist. Nat. Emp. Chin., 2:4.
-
Type locality: Philippines, Mindoro.
The taxonomic record (above) is taken from Wilson and Reeder (1993). B. mindorensis is included in the subgenus Bubalus [Hamilton-Smith, 1827] , a classification based primarily on horn morphology (Nowak, 1991; Custodio et al., 1996). Indeed, the tamaraw was once classified as a subspecies of the Asiatic water buffalo (B. bubalis) (Corbet and Hill, 1992). However, some authors place this species in the subgenus (genus) Anoa (see Rabor, 1977; Nowak, 1991). B. mindorensis is monotypic, with no recognized subspecies, and has no synonyms (Custodio et al., 1996).
General Characteristics
Bubalus mindorensis is smaller and stockier than the Asiatic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), and should not be confused with the small carabao, a domestic form of B. bubalis used in the Philippines (Nowak, 1991). Males have thicker necks than females, although there is little other sexual dimorphism (Steere, 1890, in Custodio et al., 1996). Reported measurements are scarce, but females have been estimated to weigh between 200 and 300 kilograms.
|
Reported measurements for tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis)
|
| Source |
Adult Weight |
Head & Body Length |
Shoulder Height |
Tail Length |
| Buchholtz, 1990 |
-
|
-
|
100 cm
|
-
|
| Corbet and Hill, 1992 |
-
|
-
|
100-105 cm
|
-
|
Hooper, 1941
in Custodio et al., 1996 |
-
|
220 cm
|
94.5 cm
|
60 cm
|
| Rabor, 1977 |
-
|
-
|
120 cm
|
-
|
Roth and Montemayor-Taca, 1971
in Custodio et al., 1996 |
~180-220 kg 
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
| Talbot and Talbot, 1966 |
~275 kg
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Adult tamaraw are dark brown to grayish black in color, and have more hair than the closely related Asiatic water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis (Rabor, 1977). The hair on the back (from the neck to the hindquarters) is directed forwards, rather than towards the tail, resulting in whorls along the hindquarters where the growth changes direction (Custodio et al., 1996). In addition, there may be a darker stripe along the dorsal ridge (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). The limbs are short and the body is stocky (Rabor, 1977). White markings are present above the hooves as well as on the inner lower forelegs, similar to the lowland anoa (B. depressicornis) of Sulawesi (Custodio et al., 1996).
The face is the same color as the body, and is accentuated by whitish markings on each side of the lower jaw in some individuals (Custodio et al., 1996). A white gorget on throat may also be present in some individuals (Corbet and Hill, 1992). The only facial markings seen in the majority of individuals are a pair of gray-white stripes running from the inner corner of the eye towards the horns, creating a light “eyebrow” (Custodio et al., 1996). The skin of the nose and lips is black (Custodio et al., 1996). The ears are moderate in size, with a length of approximately 13.5 cm from the notch to the tip (Rabor, 1977; Custodio et al., 1996). White markings are present on the inside of the ears (Custodio et al., 1996)
Both sexes of tamaraw have horns which are short, stout, and black in color, growing in a “V”, rather than the arcing “C” of B. bubalis (Rabor, 1977; Custodio et al., 1996). The unmistakable wedge-shaped horns have flat surfaces, and are triangular at their base (Rabor, 1977; Corbet and Hill, 1992). The distal parts of the horns are rounded, with the sharp tips coming close together (Rabor, 1977). A pronounced series of irregular ridges and pits form rings around the horns (Rabor, 1977). Due to tamaraw rubbing their horns on various surfaces, the outer surfaces of the horns are usually worn, while the inner sides remain very rough (Rabor, 1977). Reported horn lengths range from 35.5-51.0 cm (Nowak, 1991); actual measurements summarized by Custodio et al. (1996) include 35.5 cm, 38 cm, 40 cm, 42 cm, and 43 cm. The basal circumference of one horn was 33.5 cm (Hooper, 1941, in Custodio et al., 1996).
Ontogeny and Reproduction
After a gestation of 276-315 days, a single young is born (Buchholtz, 1990). Young tamaraw may be born throughout Mindoro’s rainy season (from June to November), when food is most plentiful. However, at Mount Iglit, reports of newborn or young animals garnered by Talbot and Talbot (1966) were restricted to December and January. Newborn tamaraws are reddish-brown in color, with dark brown legs and a black mid-dorsal line (Kuehn, 1986). At a few months of age, the body color is light brown, and gradually darkens to slate in color at 3-4 years of age (Kuehn, 1986).
Females do not associate as closely with their young as do the Asiatic water buffalo (B. bubalis). One mother was observed by Kuehn (1986) grazing 50 meters away from a neonate, which lay on the ground with the neck stretched out along the ground. Although reminiscent of the “hider” behavior seen in some other ungulates, to what degree tamaraw fit the pattern is unknown. Young animals may stay with their mothers for several years, dispersing when 2-4 years of age (Custodio et al., 1996). Although an interbirth interval of two years was reported by Custodio et al. (1996), one female observed by Kuehn (1986) was accompanied by three juveniles. The life span of B. mindorensis is about 20-25 years (Buchholtz, 1990).
Ecology
Tamaraw inhabit forests, grasslands, and marshy areas, and were previously found across the island of Mindoro from sea level to elevations over 2,000 meters (Rabor, 1977). At Mount Iglit, vegetation cover is dominated by three grassland types - cogon (Imperata cylindrica) in drier regions, talahib (Saccharum spontaneum) in the wettest areas (both of which may reach heights over 2 meters in height), and shorter grasses, including Themeda sp., Cynodon arcuatus, Digitaria sanguinalis, Eleusine indica, Sorghum nitidum, Alloteropsis semialata, and Paspalum scrobiculatum, which grow on exposed slopes (Talbot and Talbot, 1966; Kuehn, 1986). The original dipterocarp forests are found only as remnants along limestone ridges where there are protected from fire (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Permanent and seasonal rivers are found throughout the region, and are often lined by reeds (Phragmites spp.), bamboo (Dinochloa spp. and Schizostachyum spp.), and dipterocarp forest fragments (Kuehn, 1986).
Tamaraw are largely solitary, with the only lasting association being between a mother and her offspring (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). 82% of 218 observations made by Kuehn (1986) of adult males were of lone individuals, while adult females were either solitary or accompanied by calves in 66% of 107 observations (Kuehn, 1986). The largest group observed by Kuehn (1986) was comprised of six individuals: an adult bull, a cow and calf, and three immature males less than 3.5 years old, while one group of eleven animals was reported to Talbot and Talbot (1966). Males and females may associate throughout the year, if only fleetingly for a few hours (Custodio et al., 1996). The solitary nature of the tamaraw is suggested to be an adaptation to a forest environment, where large groups would prove to be a hindrance (Eisenberg, 1966, in Kuehn, 1986).
The tamaraw is primarily a grazer, feeding on grasses such as Cynodon arcuatus, Digitaria sanguinalis, Eleusine indica, Sorghum nitidum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Alloteropsis semialata, and Vetiveria zizanoides (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Young bamboo shoots (Schizostachyum spp.) may be eaten when grasses grow tall and coarse (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Although plentiful, cogon (Imperata cylindrica) and talahib (Saccharum spontaneum) are only eaten when it is short and green (Talbot and Talbot, 1966).
Behavior
Although formerly diurnal, tamaraw have become largely nocturnal due to encroachment and disturbance caused by humans (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Tamaraw feed in open grasslands, resting amongst tall grasses or dense forest (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Captive individuals feed most frequently between 0600 and 1000 and 1800 to 2200 hours (Momongan and Walde, 1993, in Custodio et al., 1996). Foraging accounts for 24% of the tamaraws time budget, with rumination occupying an additional 26% of the day (Momongan and Walde, 1993, in Custodio et al., 1996). Mud wallowing in captivity was observed most frequently during the day time, and this activity is likely important in wild tamaraw as well, as indicated by the presence of mud wallows throughout appropriate habitat (Talbot and Talbot, 1966; Momongan and Walde, 1993, in Custodio et al., 1996). Running and pawing dirt were observed most frequently at night in captive animals by Momongan and Walde (1993, in Custodio et al., 1996).
B. mindorensis has a well-known reputation for fierceness when cornered, although many reports are unsubstantiated (Rabor, 1977). Few agonistic encounters have been witnessed - of the eight male-male conflicts observed by Kuehn (1986), all were pursuits. Half of these occurred when the animals were condensed into small fragments of habitat due to fires, while two others were of an adult male chasing dispersing juvenile males. The distances of the pursuits were quite lengthy - between 100 and 1,000 meters, with an average of 300 meters (Kuehn, 1986). The threat posture of cows involves lowering the head so that the horns are vertical, accompanied with lateral shaking; tamaraw have not been observed tossing earth or making vertical motions with the horns (Kuehn, 1986).
Genetics
A female tamaraw examined by Fischer and Hohn (1976) had a karyotype of 2n = 46 (in Custodio et al., 1996).
Distribution
The tamaraw is endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro (9,735 km2 in area), with a range estimated to be less than 100 km2 (IUCN, 2002). While formerly widespread across the island, this species is now believed to occupy only two or three areas: Mount Iglit-Baco National Park (within the Iglit range), Mount Aruyan/Sablayan, and possibly Mount Calavite Tamaraw Preserve (IUCN, 2002). Formerly, in the Pleistocene epoch, the tamaraw was also found on the island of Luzon (Beyer, 1957 in Kuehn, 1986).
Countries: (Philippines (IUCN, 2002).
Range Map (Redrawn from Custodio et al., 1996, the exact area of occurrence is unknown)
Conservation Status
B. mindorensis is classified as critically endangered (Criteria: C1) by the IUCN (2002), an upgraded listing from the 1996 listing of endangered. The tamaraw is listed on CITES Appendix I (CITES, 2003). In 1900 there were an estimated 10,000 tamaraw on Mindoro, 120 in 1975, 370 in 1987 (Petocz, 1989, in Corbet and Hill, 1992). The current population is estimated at between 30 and 200 individuals (IUCN, 2002). Major threats to the continued survival of the tamaraw include habitat loss as a result of agriculture and the development of human infrastructure and the introduction of diseases and parasites from domestic species (IUCN, 2002). The tamaraw has also been overhunted for meat and as a trophy animal (Rabor, 1977). Hunting was carefully regulated prior to the Second World War, but in the times since then a growing human population, lumber operations, ranching, and widespread availability of firearms on Mindoro have caused a dramatic decline in numbers (Talbot and Talbot, 1966). Although protected by law, the illegal capture and killing of this species continues to occur (Rabor, 1977).
Remarks
B. mindorensis is the only native bovid to the Philippines, and is the countries largest native land animal (Rabor, 1977). The name Tamaraw is from the language of the people of the Philippine island of Luzon, and is spelled with considerable variation, with tamarau, tamarou, and tamarao being common variants (Rabor, 1977).
Boubalos (Greek) a buffalo. Mindoro is an island in the Philippines; -ensis (Latin) suffix meaning belonging to, the tamaraw is restricted to to this island (see distribution for more information).
- Local names (from Rabor, 1977)
- Tamaraw, Timaraw [Mindoro]
- French
- Tamarao, Tamarau (Buchholtz, 1990; IUCN, 2002)
- German
- Tamarau, Tamarao, Mindorobüffel (Buchholtz, 1990)
- Spanish
- Tamarau, Búfalo de Mindoro (IUCN, 2002)
Literature Cited
Buchholtz, C. 1990. Cattle. In Grzimek’s Encyclopedia of Mammals. Edited by S. P. Parker. New York: McGraw-Hill. Volume 5, pp. 360-417.
CITES (Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna). 2003. Appendix I, II, and III as adopted by the Conference of the Parties, valid from 13 February 2003. Available online at http://www.cites.org/
Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. 1992. The Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A systematic review. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Custodio, C. C., M. V. Lepiten, and L. R. Heaney. 1996. Bubalus mindorensis. Mammalian Species (520): 1-5.
Keuhn, D. W. 1986. Population and social characteristics of the tamarao (Bubalus mindorensis). Biotropica 18(3): 263-266.
Nowak, R. M. [editor]. 1991. Walker’s Mammals of the World (Fifth Edition). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Rabor, D. S. 1977. Philippine Birds and Mammals: A project of the U. P. Science Education Center. Quezon City: University of Philippines Press.
Talbot, L. M., and M. H. Talbot. 1966. The tamarau (Bubalus mindorensis): observations and recommendations. Mammalia 30: 1-12.
Wilson, D. E., and D. M. Reeder [editors]. 1993. Mammal Species of the World (Second Edition). Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Available online at http://nmnhwww.si.edu/msw/
Additional Resources
Anon. 1973. Tamaraws increase. Oryx 12:179.
Alcasid, G.L. 1977. Vanishing Philippine Wildlife. In: A.R. Roces (ed.) Filipino heritage, the making of a nation. Vol.I, p.53. Lahing Pilipino Publishing Inc.
Anunciado, R. V. P., S. L. Eduardo, V. G. Momongan, R. F. Escalada. 1994. Parasites of the captive tamaraw, Bubalus mindorensis (Heude, 1888) (Mammalia: Ruminantia). Philippine Journal of Veterinary Medicine 31(1): 5-10.
Braun, A., C. P. Groves, and P. Grubb. 2002. Rediscovery of the type specimen of Bubalus mindorensis Heude, 1888. Mammalian Biology 67(4): 246-249.
Callo, R. A. 1991. The tamaraw population: decreasing or increasing? Canopy International 16(4): 4, 9.
Callo, R. A. 1996. Tamaraw habitat and ecology. In Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). Population and habitat viability assessment. Edited by J. de Leon, N. Lawas, R. Escalada, P. Ong, R. Callo, S. Hedges, J. Ballou, D. Armstrong, and U. S. Seal. University of the Philippines Los Banos College, Laguna, Philippines 15-17 May 1996. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group. Apple Valley, Minnesota. 1996. Pp. 125-135.
Cox, R., and M. Woodford. 1990. A technical evaluation of the Philippine tamaraw conservation programme. A report to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Republic of the Philippines by IUCN, Zoological Society of London and Bristol, Clifton and West England Zoological Society.
de Leon, J., N. Lawas, R. Escalada, P. Ong, R. Callo, S. Hedges, J. Ballou, D. Armstrong, and U. S. Seal. 1996. Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). Population and habitat viability assessment. Edited by University of the Philippines Los Banos College, Laguna, Philippines 15-17 May 1996. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group. Apple Valley, Minnesota. 1996.
Escalada, R. F. 1996. Tamaraw capture. In Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). Population and habitat viability assessment. Edited by J. de Leon, N. Lawas, R. Escalada, P. Ong, R. Callo, S. Hedges, J. Ballou, D. Armstrong, and U. S. Seal. University of the Philippines Los Banos College, Laguna, Philippines 15-17 May 1996. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group. Apple Valley, Minnesota. 1996. Pp. 152-154.
Lawas, N. R., and J. de Leon. 1996. The tamaraw conservation program: past, present and future thrusts and direction. In Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). Population and habitat viability assessment. Edited by J. de Leon, N. Lawas, R. Escalada, P. Ong, R. Callo, S. Hedges, J. Ballou, D. Armstrong, and U. S. Seal. University of the Philippines Los Banos College, Laguna, Philippines 15-17 May 1996. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group. Apple Valley, Minnesota. 1996. Pp. 119-123.
Lustria, U. M., and R. A. Callo. 1992. Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis Heude) census in Mt. Iglit, Occidental Mindoro and gene pool farm. Sylvatrop 2(1): 81-90.
*Maala, C. P. 2001. Endangered Philippine wildlife species with special reference to the Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) and tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). Journal of International Development and Cooperation; 8: 1-17.
Maala, C. P., R. F. Escalada, and V. G. Momongan. 1991. The skull of a tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis Huede). Sylvatrop 1(2): 91-98.
Masangkay, J. S., T. Namikawa, V. G. Momongan, and R. Escalada. 1991. Chemical restraint of the tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) for blood collection. Philippine Journal of Veterinary Medicine 28(2): 81-83.
Masangkay, J. S., M. Bravo, and R. F. Escalada. 1996. Diseases of tamaraws (Bubalus mindorensis) in captivity. In Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). Population and habitat viability assessment. Edited by J. de Leon, N. Lawas, R. Escalada, P. Ong, R. Callo, S. Hedges, J. Ballou, D. Armstrong, and U. S. Seal. University of the Philippines Los Banos College, Laguna, Philippines 15-17 May 1996. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group. Apple Valley, Minnesota. 1996. Pp. 147-150.
Meyer, A.B. 1896. Saugethiere von Celebes-und-Philippinen-Archipel. I.R. Friedlander und Sohn, Berlin, Germany.
Momongan, V. G., and G. I. Walde. 1993. Behavior of the endangered tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis Heude) in captivity. Asia Life Sciences 2(2): 241-250.
*Oliver, W. L. R. 1992. Threatened endemic Artiodactyla of the Philippines: status and future priorities. International Zoo Yearbook; 32: 131–144.
Petocz, R. 1989. Status of the tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group Newsletter, 2: 1-4.
Quimbo, M. A. 1996. Tamaraw population: distribution and status. In Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). Population and habitat viability assessment. Edited by J. de Leon, N. Lawas, R. Escalada, P. Ong, R. Callo, S. Hedges, J. Ballou, D. Armstrong, and U. S. Seal. University of the Philippines Los Banos College, Laguna, Philippines 15-17 May 1996. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group. Apple Valley, Minnesota. 1996. Pp. 137-145.
*Rabor, D.S. 1986. Guide to the Philippine flora and fauna. Natural Resources Management Centre. Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines.
Sitwell, N. 1975. On the track of the tamaraw, Wildlife, London; 17: 428-430.
Solis, C. D., Y. Kawamoto, K. Tanaka, J. S. Masangkay, and T. Namikawa. 1998. Transferrin polymorphism in the tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) and comparison among the Asian buffaloes using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Philippine Journal of Veterinary Medicine 35(1-2): 37-40.
Stefen, C., and A. Feiler. 2004. Observations on the postnatal changes of skull morphology and tooth wear of the Tamarao, Bubalus mindorensis (Mammalia: Bovidae). Zoologische Abhandlungen (Dresden); 54: 317-330.
Suchomel, J. Some notes relating to the observation of tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) in the Mt. Iglit-Baco National Park, the Philippines, in 2003. Lynx (Prague); (36): 103-110.
Sumulong, M. D. 1931. The skeleton of the Timarau. Philippine Journal of Science; 46: 141-158.
Thomas, O. 1898. On the mammals obtained by Mr. John Whitehead during his recent expedition to the Philippines. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 14: 377-412.
*Timm, R. M., and E. C. Birney. 1980. Mammals Collected by the Menage Scientific Expedition to the Philippine Islands and Borneo, 1890-1893. Journal of Mammalogy; 61(3): 566-571
Walde, G. I. , V. G. Momongan, and R. F. Escalada. 1996. The behavioral pattern and some basic physiological parameters of tamaraws (Bubalus mindorensis Heude) in captivity during the dry and wet seasons. In Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). Population and habitat viability assessment. Edited by J. de Leon, N. Lawas, R. Escalada, P. Ong, R. Callo, S. Hedges, J. Ballou, D. Armstrong, and U. S. Seal. University of the Philippines Los Banos College, Laguna, Philippines 15-17 May 1996. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group. Apple Valley, Minnesota. 1996. Pp. 173-204.
Axis calamianensis 
